Which of the following is a complication of diabetes mellitus?

Correct Answer: A

Rationale: Gastroparesis is a complication of diabetes mellitus. It is a condition that affects the normal spontaneous movement of the muscles in the stomach, causing delayed emptying of food from the stomach into the small intestine. This can lead to symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, bloating, and poor appetite. Diabetes can damage the nerves that control the stomach muscles, resulting in gastroparesis. Managing blood sugar levels and following a proper diet can help in controlling the symptoms of gastroparesis in individuals with diabetes. Exophthalmos, hirsutism, and moon facies are not typically associated with complications of diabetes mellitus.

Correct Answer: D

Rationale: Hyperuricemia is a medical condition characterized by elevated levels of uric acid in the blood. This can lead to the formation of urate crystals, which are responsible for various health problems. The three main conditions associated with hyperuricemia are cardiovascular disease (A), gouty arthritis (B), and nephrolithiasis (C).

Correct Answer: A

Rationale: The posterior pituitary gland secretes anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin, which are produced in the hypothalamus and then transported and stored in the posterior pituitary before being released into the bloodstream. ADH, also known as vasopressin, helps regulate water balance in the body by controlling the reabsorption of water in the kidneys. Oxytocin, on the other hand, plays a role in various reproductive functions such as labor and lactation, as well as social bonding and behavior.

Correct Answer: A

Rationale: Acromegaly is a hormonal disorder that results from the overproduction of growth hormone (GH) in adulthood. One of the key physical characteristics associated with acromegaly is the enlargement of facial features. People with acromegaly often develop prognathism, which is a condition where the lower jaw protrudes forward, leading to a prominent lower face. Additionally, they may have large fleshy lips due to the soft tissue swelling that occurs as a result of excess GH. Other common signs of acromegaly include enlarged hands and feet, thickened skin, and joint pain.

Correct Answer: B

Rationale: Hemoglobin A1c, also known as HbA1c or glycated hemoglobin, is a blood test that measures the average blood glucose level over the previous 2 to 3 months. This test is useful in monitoring long-term blood glucose control in individuals with diabetes. Hemoglobin A1c provides an indication of how well blood glucose levels have been controlled over time, reflecting the average blood sugar levels during the lifespan of red blood cells, which is typically around 2 to 3 months. A higher Hemoglobin A1c level indicates poorer blood glucose control and an increased risk of diabetes complications.

Correct Answer: B

Rationale: The earliest changes observed by ophthalmoscope in background retinopathy of diabetes is typically the presence of microaneurysms. These are small dilations of retinal capillaries due to weakening of the vessel walls caused by diabetes-induced damage. Microaneurysms are a hallmark sign of diabetic retinopathy and are often the first visible sign on retinal examination. Other changes in diabetic retinopathy, such as venous dilatation, increased capillary permeability, and arteriovenous shunts, may develop later in the disease process as it progresses.

Correct Answer: C

Rationale: Cortisol secretion is directly stimulated by adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which is produced and released by the anterior pituitary gland in response to corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) from the hypothalamus. ACTH acts on the adrenal cortex to stimulate the production and release of cortisol. Aldosterone is another hormone produced by the adrenal cortex, but it is not directly involved in the stimulation of cortisol secretion. Prolactin is a hormone produced by the pituitary gland that plays a role in lactation, not cortisol secretion. High blood potassium levels can stimulate aldosterone secretion but do not directly stimulate cortisol secretion.

Correct Answer: D

Rationale: Weight gain is a common symptom of Cushing's syndrome due to the excessive production of cortisol, a hormone that regulates metabolism and fat storage. The other symptoms listed, such as easy bruising, acne, and stretch marks, are also characteristic features of Cushing's syndrome. However, weight loss is typically not associated with this condition. In fact, individuals with Cushing's syndrome often experience unexplained and rapid weight gain, especially in the face, abdomen, and upper back (resulting in a characteristic "buffalo hump" appearance), rather than weight loss.

Correct Answer: A

Rationale: Hypertonicity (increased osmolarity or high concentration of solutes in the blood) is the most potent stimulus for the hypothalamic production of arginine vasopressin (also known as antidiuretic hormone or ADH). When the body senses increased plasma osmolality, the osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus stimulate the release of vasopressin from the posterior pituitary gland. Vasopressin acts on the kidneys to increase water reabsorption and decrease urine output, helping to restore normal osmolarity. This mechanism helps to conserve water and maintain body fluid balance in response to dehydration or increased solute concentration in the blood.