Correct Answer: D

Rationale: Castration anxiety is a concept from Freudian psychoanalytic theory that occurs during the Phallic stage. This stage occurs between 3 to 6 years of age and is when children experience conflicts related to the Oedipus complex (boys) and Electra complex (girls). During this stage, children may fear castration (in boys) or penis envy (in girls), which are crucial components of castration anxiety.
Therefore, the correct answer is Phallic. The other options (A: Genital, B: Oral, C: Anal) are incorrect as they do not specifically involve castration anxiety but rather represent different stages in Freud's psychosexual development theory.

Correct Answer: C

Rationale: The correct answer is C: 'polygenic.' Mental disorders are polygenic, which means they are influenced by multiple genes. This term specifically refers to conditions or traits that are caused by more than one gene.
Choice A, 'environmental,' is incorrect as it doesn't directly refer to the genetic influence on mental disorders.
Choice B, 'chemical circuits,' is incorrect as it is too specific and not a common term used to describe the genetic basis of mental disorders.
Choice D, 'probabilistic,' is incorrect as it relates more to the likelihood or chance of something happening rather than the genetic influence on mental disorders.

Correct Answer: B

Rationale: Stress can lead to changes in brain structure and function, affecting mental health and increasing the risk of disorders.
Choice A is incorrect as stress does affect brain function.
Choice C is incorrect as stress generally has negative impacts on brain function rather than improving it.
Choice D is incorrect because stress can have long-term impacts on brain function through structural and functional changes.

Correct Answer: D

Rationale: The humanistic perspective, as highlighted by proponents like Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, emphasizes the inherent drive of individuals to achieve self-actualization and positive self-growth. It focuses on the individual's potential for growth, self-improvement, and fulfilling their highest capabilities.
Choice A is incorrect as the humanistic perspective is more concerned with personal growth than with addressing the fear of death.
Choice B is associated with the psychodynamic perspective, which focuses on unconscious motives.
Choice C is related to cognitive-behavioral approaches that emphasize the rational understanding of behavior.

Correct Answer: A

Rationale: In understanding abnormal behavior, it is crucial to differentiate between necessary, sufficient, and contributory causes. Necessary causes are those that are required for a disorder to develop, meaning that without them, the disorder would not occur. However, their presence does not guarantee the occurrence of the disorder. Sufficient causes, on the other hand, are those that alone can guarantee the development of a disorder, but they are not the only factors that can lead to it. Contributory causes are factors that increase the likelihood of a disorder but are not essential on their own nor do they guarantee the disorder.
Therefore, choice A is the correct answer as it accurately describes the role of necessary causes in the development of abnormal behavior.

Choices B, C, and D are incorrect as they misrepresent the definitions and roles of sufficient and contributory causes in causing abnormal behavior.