The negative outcome of Erikson's midlife stage, stagnation, focuses on __________.

Correct Answer: C

Rationale: The correct answer is C: 'self-indulgence'. Stagnation in Erikson's midlife stage refers to a lack of growth and self-indulgence, leading to a feeling of unproductiveness. This contrasts with 'role confusion' (A), which is associated with Erikson's adolescence stage, 'selflessness' (B) which is a positive trait, and 'guilt and shame' (D) which are emotions typically associated with earlier stages of development.

Correct Answer: C

Rationale: According to Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, when parents support a child's growing independence with guidance and reassurance, the child develops a sense of autonomy. Autonomy is characterized by a growing sense of self-control, confidence, and independence. Basic trust (choice A) is associated with the first stage of Erikson's theory (trust vs. mistrust) during infancy. Mistrust (choice B) arises when a child's basic needs are not met consistently, leading to a lack of trust in the world. Industry (choice D) is related to Erikson's later stages of development and involves competence and productivity in work and tasks.

Correct Answer: A

Rationale: Vygotsky viewed make-believe play as the ideal social context for fostering cognitive development in early childhood. Make-believe play encourages children to explore various roles and scenarios, promoting cognitive and social development. Sensorimotor play focuses on physical interactions with the environment, while block play involves building and construction activities. Parallel play refers to children playing alongside each other without direct interaction, which is not the type of play Vygotsky emphasized for cognitive development.

Correct Answer: B

Rationale: Basic emotions like happiness, sadness, and anger are universal across humans, meaning they are experienced by people worldwide regardless of cultural differences. These emotions are not limited to a specific group of individuals or exclusive to humans; they are observed in various species. Choice A is incorrect because basic emotions actually appear early in life, not specifically in the middle of the second year. Choice C is incorrect as basic emotions are not exclusive to humans but are observed in other animals as well. Choice D is incorrect because basic emotions do not necessarily involve injury to our sense of self, but rather represent fundamental and instinctual feelings that are part of human nature.

Correct Answer: B

Rationale: According to the cognitive perspective of perceptual development, babies impose meaning on what they perceive. This means that babies actively interpret and make sense of the stimuli they encounter. Choice A is incorrect because babies are not seen as blank slates in this context; they actively engage with their environment. Choice C is incorrect as babies do not necessarily search for discontinuous stimuli, but rather interpret what they perceive. Choice D is incorrect as seeking variant features in the environment is not a core concept of the cognitive perspective of perceptual development.

Correct Answer: C

Rationale: By age 2, children are capable of adjusting their speech to fit the age of their listeners, showing early social cognition. Choice A is incorrect because taking turns in face-to-face interaction typically develops later in childhood. Choice B is incorrect as the ability to infer a speaker's indirectly expressed intention is a more advanced skill not typically seen at age 2. Choice D is also incorrect as children at age 2 are not developmentally ready to adjust their speech based on the social status of their listeners.

Correct Answer: D

Rationale: The correct answer is D: 'Fathers; boys.' The extract provided indicates that fathers are particularly insistent that boys adhere to traditional gender roles, emphasizing masculinity. This is a common stereotype where fathers often push their sons to conform to societal expectations of masculinity. Choices A and B are incorrect because the extract specifies fathers, not mothers. Choice C is incorrect as it pairs fathers with girls, which is not supported by the provided information.

Correct Answer: C

Rationale: The correct answer is C: 'have not borne children.' Women who have not borne children may experience menopause earlier due to lower levels of certain reproductive hormones. Having two or more children (choice A) is not typically associated with reaching menopause earlier. Smoking (choice B) is known to have negative effects on menopause but does not necessarily cause it to happen earlier. Borne twins (choice D) is a specific scenario and not a general factor influencing the timing of menopause.

Correct Answer: B

Rationale: Corrected Rationale: Vygotsky believed that language plays a crucial role in the development of higher cognitive functions. Language enables individuals to communicate, think abstractly, and engage in complex problem-solving, forming the foundation for higher cognitive processes. Egocentrism (Choice A) refers to a stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development, not Vygotsky's. Sensorimotor activity (Choice C) is part of Piaget's stages of cognitive development, focusing on how infants understand the world through sensory experiences and physical actions. Self-reflection (Choice D) involves introspection and examination of one's thoughts and feelings, which is not the central concept in Vygotsky's theory.