Causes of non-bloody diarrhoea include:

Correct Answer: C

Rationale: In pediatric pharmacology, understanding the causes of non-bloody diarrhea is crucial for nurses to provide effective care. The correct answer, C) Giardia lamblia, is a protozoan parasite commonly found in contaminated water sources. Giardia infection often leads to non-bloody diarrhea due to its effects on the gastrointestinal system, making it a significant cause to consider in pediatric patients presenting with these symptoms. Option A) Shigella dysentery typically causes bloody diarrhea, making it an incorrect choice for non-bloody diarrhea. Option B) Campylobacter jejuni is also associated with bloody diarrhea more frequently than non-bloody diarrhea, further highlighting its inaccuracy in this context. Option D) Salmonella infections can result in both bloody and non-bloody diarrhea; however, in the context of this question focusing on non-bloody diarrhea specifically, it is not the most appropriate choice. Educationally, nurses must be able to differentiate between various causes of diarrhea in pediatric patients to provide targeted treatment and management. Understanding the specific characteristics of each pathogen and its associated clinical presentation is essential for accurate assessment and intervention, ensuring optimal care for pediatric patients with gastrointestinal issues.

Correct Answer: A

Rationale: In pediatric patients with epilepsy, choosing the appropriate anti-epileptic drug is crucial for effective management. Sodium valproate is commonly used in children due to its broad-spectrum activity against various seizure types, making it a suitable option for pediatric epilepsy treatment. - Sodium valproate (Option A) is the correct answer due to its efficacy in managing various types of seizures in children, including absence seizures, myoclonic seizures, and generalized tonic-clonic seizures. It is also well-tolerated and has a lower risk of causing cognitive impairments compared to other anti-epileptic drugs. - Lamotrigine (Option B) is another commonly used anti-epileptic drug, but it is more frequently prescribed in older children and adolescents due to its side effect profile and dosing considerations. It may not be the first choice in younger children. - Topiramate (Option C) is effective in treating seizures in children, but it is often used as an adjunctive therapy rather than a first-line treatment due to its side effects, such as cognitive slowing and weight loss. - Phenytoin (Option D) is less commonly used in children due to its narrow therapeutic index, potential for toxicity, and interactions with other medications. It is often reserved for specific seizure types when other treatments have failed. Educationally, understanding the rationale behind choosing specific anti-epileptic drugs in pediatric patients is essential for nurses caring for children with epilepsy. It involves considering factors such as the child's age, seizure type, comorbidities, potential side effects, dosing considerations, and monitoring requirements to ensure safe and effective treatment. By grasping these concepts, nurses can play a vital role in optimizing the care and outcomes of pediatric patients with epilepsy.

Correct Answer: A

Rationale: In pediatric cardiovascular nursing, understanding common causes of recurrent hematuria is essential for providing effective care. The correct answer is A) Berger's disease. Berger's disease, also known as IgA nephropathy, is a common cause of recurrent hematuria in children. It is characterized by the deposition of IgA immune complexes in the kidneys, leading to inflammation and damage to the glomeruli. Option B) Goodpasture's syndrome is unlikely to cause recurrent hematuria in children. Goodpasture's syndrome is a rare autoimmune disorder that primarily affects the lungs and kidneys, leading to pulmonary hemorrhage and glomerulonephritis. It is more common in adults than in children. Option C) Renal stones typically present with symptoms such as flank pain, hematuria, and urinary tract infections but are not a common cause of recurrent hematuria in children. Option D) Acute post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis can cause hematuria following a streptococcal infection. However, it is usually self-limiting and does not typically result in recurrent episodes of hematuria. Educationally, understanding the differential diagnosis of recurrent hematuria in pediatric patients is crucial for nurses to provide appropriate care, monitor for complications, and collaborate effectively with the healthcare team. By recognizing the distinctive features of each condition, nurses can contribute to accurate assessments, timely interventions, and improved outcomes for pediatric patients with cardiovascular and renal conditions.

Correct Answer: D

Rationale: In the context of pediatric cardiovascular nursing, understanding signs of fetal distress is crucial for timely intervention and ensuring optimal outcomes. Fetal distress, indicating compromised oxygenation and perfusion, is often manifested by bradycardia (option D). Bradycardia signals a significant decrease in fetal heart rate, suggesting potential hypoxia or other serious conditions requiring immediate attention. Option A, meconium staining of liquor, typically indicates fetal bowel movement in utero and is more associated with potential respiratory complications postnatally rather than immediate fetal distress related to cardiovascular issues. Arrhythmias (option B) and tachycardia (option C) may also be concerning but are not specific indicators of fetal distress in the same context as bradycardia. Educationally, this question highlights the importance of recognizing key clinical signs of fetal distress and understanding their implications in the context of pediatric cardiovascular nursing. It underscores the need for nurses to be vigilant in monitoring fetal well-being during labor and delivery, as prompt identification and intervention can significantly impact neonatal outcomes.

Correct Answer: A

Rationale: In pediatric cardiovascular nursing, understanding the triggers of the alternate pathway of complement is crucial for providing effective care. The correct answer is option A) Bacterial lipopolysaccharide because this molecule can directly activate the alternate pathway. Bacterial lipopolysaccharide is a component of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, and its recognition by the immune system initiates the complement cascade. Option B) Interleukin 2 is incorrect because it is a cytokine produced by activated T cells to regulate the immune response but is not a direct trigger of the alternate complement pathway. Option C) Macrophages are important immune cells that play a role in phagocytosis and antigen presentation but do not directly activate the alternate complement pathway. Option D) Properdin is a positive regulator of the alternative pathway of complement, stabilizing the C3 convertase, rather than being a trigger itself. Educationally, understanding the specific triggers of the complement system in pediatric patients is vital for assessing and managing conditions involving immune dysregulation, infections, and inflammatory responses in cardiovascular health. By knowing the correct triggers, nurses can anticipate and provide appropriate interventions to support pediatric patients with cardiovascular issues effectively.