Cardiac output

Correct Answer: D

Rationale: The correct answer is D because cardiac output refers to the amount of blood pumped by the heart into the systemic circulation per minute. It is a crucial measure of heart function. Option A, coronary insufficient circulation, specifically refers to inadequate blood flow to the heart muscle itself, not overall cardiac output. Option B, a defect in heart valves, would affect the efficiency of blood flow but not necessarily the total amount of blood pumped. Option C, a disorder in heart rhythm, relates to irregular heartbeat patterns rather than the volume of blood pumped. Therefore, D is the correct choice as it directly relates to the definition of cardiac output.

Correct Answer: C

Rationale: The correct answer is C: Hemorrhage. Hemorrhage refers to excessive bleeding. Thrombosis (A) is the formation of blood clots, not excessive bleeding. Embolus (B) is a blood clot that travels through the bloodstream and blocks a blood vessel. Hemostasis (D) is the process of stopping bleeding, not the term for excessive bleeding. In summary, only choice C directly relates to the medical term for excessive bleeding.

Correct Answer: C

Rationale: The correct answer is C: Charles Janeway. He proposed the existence of pattern recognition receptors on innate cells in the 1980s, leading to the development of the concept of innate immunity. Janeway's hypothesis revolutionized our understanding of immune responses by emphasizing the role of pattern recognition in detecting pathogens. Tonegawa is known for his work on immune diversity; Metchnikoff discovered phagocytes; and Steinman identified dendritic cells. Janeway's contribution to immunology specifically focuses on pattern recognition receptors, making him the correct choice for this question.

Correct Answer: D

Rationale: The correct answer is D: IL-8. IL-8 is not a systemic cytokine because it mainly acts locally at the site of inflammation to recruit neutrophils. Systemic cytokines like TNF, IL-1, and IL-6 have widespread effects throughout the body, influencing various immune responses and inflammatory processes. IL-8's localized action distinguishes it from systemic cytokines, making it the correct choice. TNF, IL-1, and IL-6 are all systemic cytokines that play key roles in regulating the immune response and inflammation at a systemic level, unlike IL-8.

Correct Answer: B

Rationale: The correct sequence is B: Physical barriers; innate responses; adaptive responses. Physical barriers like skin and mucous membranes are the first line of defense, followed by innate responses (e.g., inflammation, phagocytosis) that provide immediate, non-specific protection. Adaptive responses (e.g., antibody production, T cell activation) are the final defense mechanism, specifically targeting the pathogen. Choices A, C, and D are incorrect because they do not follow the correct chronological order of how host immune defenses are encountered by a pathogen. Option A and D have the innate and adaptive responses in the wrong order, while option C places adaptive responses before physical barriers, which is not accurate in terms of the sequence of host immune defenses.